Beneath the surface: Rediscovering barbadian manjak

By Sherwood McCaskie

May 2, 2025

Scotland District, Barbados

On the landscape of Barbadian history, few natural resources have been so paradoxically celebrated and forgotten as manjak. Pronounced man-jack (and sometimes spelt manjack or moniack), this enigmatic substance once promised to make Barbados an industrial powerhouse, but now survives mostly in folklore and fragments of memory. This enigmatic substance once played a pivotal role in the island's industrial and cultural narrative. Beyond its colloquial use to denote inclusivity, "manjak" refers to a naturally occurring bitumen, rich in hydrocarbons, found primarily in Barbados' Scotland District.

Ask a Barbadian today about "manjak," and you're likely to receive puzzled looks or humorous retorts.   Interestingly, nearly five decades ago,  the late historian Edward Stoute posed a simple question to a group of Barbadians: What is manjak? To his surprise, many were left dumbfounded and pressed him for an explanation. In response, Stoute penned an article for the Barbados Advocate on Sunday, April 11, 1976, in which he explored this curious, almost-forgotten substance. Much of the information he shared was drawn from an earlier article by R.H. Emtage, who had operated the manjak mines near College Savannah. Emtage’s piece, titled “Mineral Resources in Barbados”, was published in Volume 10 of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society Journal and also appeared in the Barbados Handbook of 1913. Together, these two accounts stand among the most comprehensive written records of this bitumen, believed to be indigenous to Barbados.

Manjak in Springvale, St. Andrew, Barbados

In addition to these sources, the Barbados Museum and Historical Society (BMHS) has preserved brief journal entries from early visitors who were fascinated by their encounters with the mineral, further underscoring manjak’s former significance as a natural treasure with untapped potential. It is defined in the A–Z of Barbadian Heritage as:

“A solid tar or Glance Pitch coal, rich in bitumen, found in the Scotland District. It forms when oil deposits near to the surface are subject to heat, oxygen and bacterial degradation.”

Importantly, manjak should not be confused with asphalt, the term commonly used to describe a lower-grade bituminous material used for roads and pavements. In fact, in the years immediately following its discovery, manjak was erroneously labeled as asphalt. This misclassification significantly diminished its perceived value during the early period of mining. True to its name, manjak was a substance extracted directly from the earth, leading to the establishment of manjak mines across the island. These were found primarily in the Scotland District, including Springvale Plantation in St. Thomas, Merivale near College Savannah in St. John, and parts of St. Joseph.

Manjak in Turner’s Hall Woods

Rarely is it recognised for what it originally denoted, a naturally occurring asphalt or bitumen. Yet, if we look closely at the records from colonial dispatches to mineralogical bulletins, we find that manjak played a compelling role in the island’s economic hopes, scientific recognition, and cultural traditions.

A Forgotten Treasure

The earliest known reference to manjak in Barbados can be traced to Richard Ligon, the English writer who lived on the island in the 1640s. In his 1657 account, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados, Ligon described a strange material:

“...a gummy substance as black and hard as pitch,”“...very like to pitch, and used instead of it.”

This same substance was later referenced by Governor Sir Jonathan Atkins in 1676. In his dispatch to the Lords of Trade in England, Atkins wrote:

“There is a kind of coal in this island, which the inhabitants call moniack; it is like your cannel coal in Lancashire, and serves here to pitch boats with.”

Here, the material is seen not only as a natural curiosity but a useful local resource. Barbados, lacking forests of pitch-pine or easy access to imported tar, found in manjak a substitute for sealing boats and repairing surfaces exposed to water. These early observations suggest that Barbadians had known about and used manjak—even if informally. It is believed that enslaved Africans and Indigenous peoples may have discovered and applied manjak centuries before colonial officials began writing it into the record.

A Spark of Industrial Hope

It was not until the late 19th century that manjak, this naturally occurring asphalt-like substance found in the Scotland District of Barbados, drew serious international attention. Long known to locals for its curious, brittle, glossy-black appearance and tar-like qualities, manjak had existed largely as a geological curiosity—until the industrial age uncovered its true potential. In 1893, carefully selected samples were sent to laboratories and industrial interests in Boston, USA, sparking a wave of interest in the possible commercial and industrial applications of this uniquely Barbadian resource.

At the center of this effort was Walter Merivale, an Englishman serving as manager of the Barbados Railway. A man of vision and enterprise, Merivale recognised that manjak had the potential to fuel industry, literally and figuratively. Its composition, rich in carbon and similar to asphalt and pitch, made it ideal as an energy source, sealant, and component in insulation, waterproofing, and paving. With the confidence of an industrial age booming with invention, Merivale joined forces with investors to establish the Boston Fuel and Power Company, which subsequently acquired mineral rights in the parish of St. John.

With financial backing and foreign interest secured, the company launched a commercial mining operation, marking one of the few significant moments in Barbadian history where local natural resources were tapped for global markets. The operation expanded rapidly: by the early 1900s, the manjak industry was booming. Between 1894 and 1905, over 9,500 tons of manjak were mined and exported, primarily to the United States, where demand for high-grade, naturally occurring carbon products was growing. The economic potential was substantial. The price of manjak fluctuated between $12 and $48 per ton, depending on its grade and purity, which made it one of the more valuable mineral exports from the island at the time. Mining operations were anything but simple. Workers burrowed deep into the earth, where the tunnels stretched some 700 yards underground, and shafts reached depths of up to 150 feet.

Manjak, 2025

The labour force, made up entirely of Barbadian men, worked under harsh and hazardous conditions. The mines were hot, unventilated, and narrow, with only basic safety precautions in place. Yet, despite the dangers, these men participated in one of the few local industrial ventures that promised upward mobility and national pride. In many ways, the industry became a symbol of Barbadian potential—a glimpse of what could be achieved if the island’s natural resources were harnessed with innovation and intent.

The short-lived success of the manjak industry was a spark of industrial hope, hinting at the possibilities of local extraction industries and global trade. Though its legacy was later eclipsed by the collapse of the industry, the early 20th century remains a poignant reminder of how Barbadians once stood on the precipice of industrial transformation, mining the depths of our own earth for a place in the modern world.

A World-Class Mineral

What made Barbadian manjak remarkable was not just its volume but its exceptional purity. The Mineralogical Bureau of Belgium noted in the early 1900s:

“It is surprising that a material of such remarkable purity should be found in nature. Its chemical composition is so close to that of manufactured hard bitumens as to suggest human intervention, yet it is entirely natural.”

Likewise, the Mitchell-Rand Manufacturing Company of New York described it as:

“The best insulating material known to the electrical industry.”

Manjak’s uses were diverse: it was made into varnishes, lacquers, electrical insulators, and also used to coat the iconic Singer sewing machines. One Canadian chemist called it “the cleanest and hardest natural asphalt” they had ever tested. Some samples were sent to Egypt for comparison with the famed bitumen used in mummification. The Barbadian manjak held its own. A sample of the highest-grade manjak was exhibited at the Crystal Palace Exhibition in London, where it drew the attention of scientists and investors alike.

Folk Medicine and Cultural Memory

Outside the industrial and scientific circles, manjak had another life rooted deeply in Barbadian folk knowledge and cultural memory. For generations, this rare, naturally occurring hydrocarbon was not only seen as a geological curiosity but also revered as a healing substance in local medicine. Within the communities of rural Barbados, particularly in the parishes near the Scotland District where manjak deposits were most accessible, its value extended well beyond the realm of mining.

Manjak was widely used to treat a range of ailments, most notably venereal diseases such as gonorrhea and herpes. Traditional healers, midwives, and elders relied on it to draw out infections, soothe wounds, and address skin conditions like rashes and fungal infections. When mixed with castor oil or other native remedies, manjak was applied as a chest rub to ease congestion and coughs or formed into poultices to relieve pain and inflammation. In some homes, it served as an early form of salve or balm, known for its warming properties and believed to draw toxins from the body.

This knowledge was seldom written down; instead, it was preserved through oral tradition, passed quietly from one generation to the next. The use of manjak in folk medicine reflects a broader pattern of cultural resilience, where local communities, often marginalised from formal healthcare systems, crafted their own pharmacopeias from the resources available to them. In this way, manjak became more than just a mineral; it became a vessel of ancestral wisdom and a symbol of the enduring relationship between land, healing, and heritage in Barbadian life.

Manjak- glance pitch - A Resource That Slipped Away

The Decline of the Manjak Industry

Despite its early promise and international acclaim for purity and quality, the manjak industry in Barbados experienced a rapid decline by the 1920s. Several interrelated factors contributed to this downward spiral, each undermining the industry's viability in a changing global and local economic landscape. One of the most significant challenges came from global competition, particularly with the emergence of cheaper, synthetic alternatives. As industrial chemistry advanced in the early 20th century, manufacturers increasingly turned to petroleum-based substitutes that were more cost-effective, consistent, and easier to mass-produce. Natural substances like manjak, which required extraction from deep, often unstable geological formations, struggled to compete in a market driven by efficiency and scalability.

At the same time, Barbados faced high operational costs due to the difficult and hazardous mining conditions associated with manjak. The deposits, often found in narrow veins and deep shafts, required extensive manual labor and rudimentary tools. The risk of cave-ins, toxic fumes, and limited mechanization made mining a dangerous and expensive endeavor. Additionally, the small scale of the operations meant that economies of scale could not be realized, placing further strain on profitability.  Compounding these issues was the lack of significant investment in refining and modernizing the extraction process. While other countries developed more efficient methods of processing similar materials, Barbados’s manjak industry remained relatively artisanal and undercapitalized. Colonial economic policies and limited access to industrial capital further constrained the sector’s growth potential, rendering it increasingly obsolete in a modernizing world.

By the mid-20th century, manjak mining in Barbados had ceased altogether. What remained were abandoned shafts, oral histories, and a handful of preserved samples—some of which are still on display at institutions like the Springvale Eco-Heritage Museum in St. Thomas. https://www.myguidebarbados.com/things-to-do/springvale-eco-heritage-museum . These remnants stand as silent witnesses to a forgotten chapter of Barbadian industrial history.

Springvale Eco-Heritage Museum

Today, most Barbadians have never seen or touched manjak, and few are aware that their small island once exported one of the purest forms of natural asphalt known to science. The decline of the industry not only marked the end of a unique economic venture but also led to the gradual erasure of manjak from the collective memory of the nation. As efforts grow to preserve and share more inclusive stories of Barbados’s past, manjak represents a powerful case for reconnecting with overlooked elements of the island’s industrial and cultural heritage.

Charting the Future Through the Past

Why revisit the story of manjak in 2025? Why speak of it today, in an age defined by technological leaps, climate challenges, and economic transformation? The story of manjak is not merely a relic of the past, it is a mirror reflecting Barbadian resilience, ingenuity, and the nation’s enduring capacity to engage with global industry on its own terms. It stands as proof that Barbados has always been more than a postcard paradise of sun and sand. Beneath the surface—both literally and figuratively—lies a deep, layered history of scientific exploration, industrial potential, and cultural wisdom.

At a time when the Caribbean is reimagining its development strategies, exploring sustainable pathways, renewable energy, heritage preservation, and diversified economies, the story of manjak offers profound lessons. It encourages us to rethink how we value what is local, how we record what is known, and how we innovate by honouring tradition. Rediscovering manjak is not just about mining a resource, it’s about mining meaning.

It challenges us to ask timely and relevant questions:

• How can we better document, manage, and protect our natural resources for future generations?

• What untapped reservoirs of folk knowledge, passed down in whispers and practice, still await recognition and application?

• And might these forgotten or undervalued industries, like the once-promising manjak trade, hold clues to building more resilient, self-reliant, and diversified economic futures?

By looking back, we unearth more than facts, we uncover a vision. A vision where heritage is not just remembered but reimagined, where the wisdom of the past becomes the foundation of progress, and where stories like that of manjak guide us toward a more thoughtful and empowered tomorrow.

Conclusion

Manjak is more than just a black rock. It is a silent testament to Barbados’ untold stories and untapped potential. It represents a rich and layered history embedded in the very soil of the Scotland District, binding the island’s geological evolution to its economic experiments and cultural identity. From the curious observations of 17th-century sailors to the determined inquiries of 20th-century chemists, from rural folk who swore by its healing powers to industrialists who dreamed of its commercial promise, manjak has touched many lives, even if quietly. Yet, for too long, this indigenous resource has remained overlooked, spoken of in old journals, mined in forgotten hills, and whispered about in the annals of heritage. Perhaps now, as Barbados continues to redefine itself in a modern world, it is time to turn our attention back to this remarkable substance. Not just to explore its physical value, but to appreciate what it symbolizes: a connection between land and legacy, resource and resilience, science and story. Digging deeper into manjak means more than unearthing a mineral. It means unearthing a heritage. In doing so, we may find new meaning not only in the material, but in ourselves, and in the enduring spirit of innovation, curiosity, and pride that defines the Barbadian character.

And so, as the shafts collapse and the stories fade, two final questions linger, demanding both curiosity and caution:

·      Are Barbadians unknowingly living atop an idle mineral paradise, while time and opportunity quietly slip away?

·      Are Barbadians overlooking a buried resource that once held global promise, and could again?

References

A-Z of Barbadian Heritage. Edited by Sean Carrington and Henry Fraser, Macmillan Caribbean, 2003.

Atkins, Sir Jonathan. “An Account of the Island of Barbados.” Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and West Indies, 1676–1677. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1905.

Barbados Museum and Historical Society. Visitor Journals and Archival Notes on Indigenous Minerals. BMHS Archives, Accession nos. 1895–1920.

Bowman, E.T. “Bitumen and Its Use in Paint.” The Mining and Scientific Press, vol. 108, no. 6, 1914, pp. 115–120.

Emtage, R.H. “Mineral Resources in Barbados.” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society, vol. 10, 1913, pp. 72–85.

Ligon, Richard. A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados. 1657. Reprinted by Frank Cass, 1970.

Mitchell-Rand Manufacturing Company. “On Glance Pitch: Properties and Applications.” Trade Journal on Insulation, vol. 5, 1912, pp. 33–36.

Ramsay, A., Son & Co. “Comparative Analysis of Egyptian Asphalt and Barbados Manjak.” Journal of Paint Technology, vol. 19, no. 4, 1913, pp. 58–61.

Schomburgk, Robert H. Map of Barbados: Including Bituminous Coal Sites. 1848. British Library Map Collection.

Sherwin-Williams Paints Company (Canada). “Enamel Coatings and Source Materials.” S.W. Trade Bulletin, vol. 7, 1910, p. 42.

Sinckler, E. Goulburn, editor. The Handbook of Barbados. Published under the Authority of the Government, 1914.

Stoute, Edward. “Manjak: Forgotten Resource of Barbados.” The Barbados Advocate, 11 Apr. 1976, Sunday Edition.